The Phoenician language is an extinct Northwest Semitic language of the Canaanite subgroup, spoken primarily in the ancient region of Phoenicia (modern-day Lebanon and parts of Syria and Israel) from around the 12th century BCE. It spread widely through Phoenician trade networks across the Mediterranean, evolving into Punic in Carthage and influencing many modern alphabets, including Greek, Latin and Hebrew.
Phoenician is attested mainly through inscriptions on stone, metal and pottery, with the longest texts being funerary and dedicatory.
The language features a consonantal script (abjad) with no inherent vowel notation, though later Punic texts sometimes used matres lectionis (consonant letters to indicate vowels).
This manual provides an overview of Phoenician grammar, drawing from historical linguistics and epigraphic evidence. It includes the Phoenician script (using Unicode representations), transliterations in Latin letters and English translations for examples. Dialectal variations, such as Byblian (from Byblos), Tyro-Sidonian (from Tyre and Sidon), and Punic (Carthaginian and later Neo-Punic), are noted where relevant. Punic, a later form, shows phonetic shifts like the loss of pharyngeals and lenition of stops (e.g., /p/ to /f/).
Alphabet and Orthography
The Phoenician alphabet is the world’s oldest verified alphabet, consisting of 22 consonant letters derived from Proto-Sinaitic script around 1050 BCE. It is written from right to left and lacks vowels, though semi-vowels like yod (𐤉) and waw (𐤅) could serve as matres lectionis in later periods. The script evolved over time, with cursive forms leading to Neo-Punic by the Roman era. It influenced Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek scripts.
Below is the Phoenician alphabet with each letter’s script form, traditional name (often from Proto-Semitic acrophonic values), meaning, transliteration, and approximate IPA pronunciation.
| Phoenician Script | Name | Meaning | Transliteration | IPA Sound |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 𐤀 | ʾālep | ox, head of cattle | ʾ | [ʔ] (glottal stop) |
| 𐤁 | bēt | house | b | [b] (voiced bilabial plosive) |
| 𐤂 | gīml | throwing stick (camel) | g | [ɡ] (voiced velar plosive) |
| 𐤃 | dālet | door (fish) | d | [d] (voiced alveolar plosive) |
| 𐤄 | he | window (jubilation) | h | [h] (voiceless glottal fricative) |
| 𐤅 | wāw | hook | w | [w] (labial-velar approximant) |
| 𐤆 | zayin | weapon (manacle) | z | [z] (voiced alveolar fricative) |
| 𐤇 | ḥēt | courtyard/wall | ḥ | [ħ] (voiceless pharyngeal fricative) |
| 𐤈 | ṭēt | wheel | ṭ | [tˤ] (emphatic alveolar plosive) |
| 𐤉 | yod | arm, hand | y | [j] (palatal approximant) |
| 𐤊 | kāp | palm of hand | k | [k] (voiceless velar plosive) |
| 𐤋 | lāmed | goad | l | [l] (alveolar lateral) |
| 𐤌 | mēm | water | m | [m] (bilabial nasal) |
| 𐤍 | nūn | serpent (fish) | n | [n] (alveolar nasal) |
| 𐤎 | śāmek | fish | s | [s] (voiceless alveolar fricative) |
| 𐤏 | ʿayin | eye | ʿ | [ʕ] (voiced pharyngeal fricative) |
| 𐤐 | pē | mouth (corner) | p | [p] (voiceless bilabial plosive) |
| 𐤑 | ṣādē | papyrus plant/hook | ṣ | [sˤ] (emphatic alveolar fricative) |
| 𐤒 | qōp | needle eye | q | [q] (voiceless uvular plosive) |
| 𐤓 | rēš | head | r | [r] (alveolar trill) |
| 𐤔 | šīn | tooth (sun) | š | [ʃ] (voiceless postalveolar fricative) |
| 𐤕 | tāw | mark | t | [t] (voiceless alveolar plosive) |
Orthography notes: Words were often written without spaces (scriptio continua), and later Punic used vowel letters more frequently. Dialectal variations include Byblian retaining older forms.
Phonology
Phoenician phonology features 22 consonants and a vowel system inferred from comparative Semitics and later transcriptions (e.g., in Greek or Latin). Consonants include stops, fricatives, nasals, and approximants, with emphatic (pharyngealized) sounds like ṭ, ṣ, and q.
Consonants
- Bilabials: p [p], b [b], m [m]
- Alveolars: t [t], d [d], n [n], l [l], r [r], s [s], z [z], š [ʃ]
- Emphatics: ṭ [tˤ], ṣ [sˤ]
- Velars/Uvulars: k [k], g [ɡ], q [q]
- Pharyngeals: ḥ [ħ], ʿ [ʕ]
- Glottals/Laryngeals: ʾ [ʔ], h [h]
- Approximants: w [w], y [j]
Historical changes: Proto-Semitic *š and *ṯ merged to š; *ḫ and *ḥ to ḥ. In Punic, pharyngeals weakened or merged (e.g., ʿ to ʾ), and stops lenited (p > f, b > v). Sibilants are debated: traditional š /ʃ/, s /s/, but some suggest s /ts/.
Vowels
Short: /a/, /i/, /u/; Long: /ā/, /ī/, /ū/, /ē/, /ō/. Diphthongs: /ay/ > /ē/, /aw/ > /ō/ (Canaanite shift). Example: 𐤁𐤕 /bēt/ “house” (translit. bt, pron. [beːt]). Stress typically final.
Morphology
Phoenician morphology is root-based, with triconsonantal roots modified by vowels, prefixes and suffixes for derivation.
Nouns
Nouns inflect for gender (masc., fem.), number (sg., pl., rare dual), and state (absolute, construct for genitives). Case endings (nominative -u, genitive -i, accusative -a) were lost early, but traces remain in constructs.
- Masculine: Sg. ∅ (abs.), -m (pl. abs. /-īm/ 𐤌); Construct sg. ∅, pl. -y /-ē/
- Feminine: Sg. -t /-(a)t/ 𐤕 (abs.), -t /-ūt/ 𐤕 (pl.); Construct sg. -t, pl. -t
- Example: 𐤌𐤋𐤊 mlk /milk/ “king” (abs. sg.); 𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤌 mlkm /milkīm/ “kings”; Construct: 𐤌𐤋𐤊 𐤁𐤕 mlk bt /milk bēt/ “king of the house.”
- Genitive: Post-construct, e.g., 𐤀𐤁𐤉 ʾby /ʾabī/ “my father” (with suffix -y).
In Punic, feminine -t often dropped in speech.
Adjectives
Agree with nouns in gender, number, state. Often formed with nisba suffix -y /-īy/ 𐤉.
- Example: 𐤑𐤃𐤍𐤉 ṣdny /ṣidōnīy/ “Sidonian” (masc. sg.).
Pronouns
- Independent (subject):
- 1sg: 𐤀𐤍𐤊 ʾnk /ʾanōkī/ “I”
- 2sg m: 𐤀𐤕 ʾt /ʾattā/ “you (m)”
- 2sg f: 𐤀𐤕 ʾt /ʾattī/ “you (f)”
- 3sg m: 𐤄𐤀 hʾ /hūʾ/ “he”
- 3sg f: 𐤄𐤀𐤕 hʾt /hīʾt/ “she”
- 1pl: 𐤀𐤍𐤇𐤍 ʾnḥn /ʾanaḥnū/ “we”
- 2pl: 𐤀𐤕𐤌 ʾtm /ʾattum/ “you (pl)”
- 3pl m: 𐤄𐤌 hm /hum/ “they (m)”
- 3pl f: 𐤄𐤍 hn /hin/ “they (f)”
- Suffixed (possessive/object): -y /-ī/ “my”, -k /-ka/ “your (m)”, -h /-ā/ “her”, -n /-nū/ “our”, etc.
- Example: 𐤀𐤁𐤉 ʾby /ʾabī/ “my father.”
Verbs
Verbs conjugate for aspect (perfect/complete, imperfect/incomplete), mood (indicative, imperative, infinitive), voice (active, passive, reflexive), and person/gender/number. Stems (binyanim): G (basic), N (passive/reflexive), D (intensive), C (causative), with rare others.
- Perfect (suffix-conjugated): Marks completed action.
- Example root MLK “rule”: 3sg m mlk /malak/ “he ruled”; 1sg mlkty /malaktī/ “I ruled” (𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕𐤉).
- Imperfect (prefix-conjugated): Ongoing/future.
- 3sg m ymlk /yamluk/ “he rules/will rule” (𐤉𐤌𐤋𐤊); 1sg ʾmlk /ʾamluk/ “I rule.”
- Imperative: Sg m mlk /muluk/ “rule!”; Pl m mlkw /mulukū/.
- Infinitive: Absolute lmlk /lamluk/ “to rule”; Construct mlk /muluk/.
- Participle: Active mōlek /mōlik/ “ruling.”
In Punic, vowels shifted, and forms simplified.
Syntax
Phoenician syntax is typically Verb-Subject-Object (VSO), with modifiers following heads. Genitives use construct state (no particle like Hebrew ʾet for accusative in early texts, but later ʾyt /ʾiyyōt/). Relative clauses introduced by ʾš /ʾaš/ “which/who.”
- Example sentence: 𐤊𐤍𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤌𐤁𐤏𐤋𐤑𐤃𐤍 kn mlk m bʿl ṣdn /kān milk mi baʿl ṣidōn/ “Milk was king of Baal-Sidon” (“Milk was the king in Baal-Sidon”).
- Negation: bl /bal/ “not”; Questions: with h- /ha-/ or interrogative pronouns like my /mī/ “who.”
Prepositions: b- /bi-/ “in”, l- /la-/ “to”, ʿl /ʿal/ “on.”
Vocabulary and Examples
Phoenician vocabulary shares roots with Hebrew and Aramaic.
The Phoenician language, an extinct Semitic language, was used by the Phoenicians primarily from around 1500–300 BCE. Its vocabulary is partially reconstructed from inscriptions, loanwords in other languages (like Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek), and related Semitic languages. Since no complete Phoenician dictionary exists, I’ll provide a representative list of known or reconstructed Phoenician words, including nouns, verbs, and adjectives, written in Phoenician script with their transliterations and meanings. The Phoenician script is a consonantal alphabet (abjad), so vowels are often inferred based on context or comparative linguistics.
Below is a curated list of Phoenician vocabulary, organized by part of speech. The Phoenician script is written right-to-left, and I’ll use standard transliteration conventions (e.g., ʾ for aleph, š for shin). Note that the exact pronunciation and vocalization of many words remain uncertain due to the nature of the script and limited sources. I’ll include only well-attested or reasonably reconstructed terms based on epigraphic evidence and comparative Semitic studies.
Phoenician Alphabet Reference
For clarity, here’s the Phoenician alphabet with transliterations (used in the vocabulary below):
- 𐤀 (ʾ) Aleph
- 𐤁 (b) Bet
- 𐤂 (g) Gimel
- 𐤃 (d) Dalet
- 𐤄 (h) He
- 𐤅 (w) Waw
- 𐤆 (z) Zayin
- 𐤇 (ḥ) Heth
- 𐤈 (ṭ) Teth
- 𐤉 (y) Yod
- 𐤊 (k) Kaph
- 𐤋 (l) Lamed
- 𐤌 (m) Mem
- 𐤍 (n) Nun
- 𐤎 (s) Samekh
- 𐤏 (ʿ) Ayin
- 𐤐 (p) Pe
- 𐤑 (ṣ) Sadeh
- 𐤒 (q) Qoph
- 𐤓 (r) Resh
- 𐤔 (š) Shin
- 𐤕 (t) Taw
Phoenician Vocabulary
Nouns
| Phoenician Script | Transliteration | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 𐤀𐤁 | ʾb | Father | Common in inscriptions, cf. Hebrew ʾāb. |
| 𐤀𐤌 | ʾm | Mother | Cf. Hebrew ʾēm. |
| 𐤁𐤍 | bn | Son | Frequently in funerary inscriptions, e.g., “son of.” |
| 𐤁𐤕 | bt | Daughter, House | Context-dependent; means “house” or “temple” (cf. bēt), or “daughter.” |
| 𐤌𐤋𐤊 | mlk | King | Common in royal inscriptions, cf. Hebrew melek. |
| 𐤀𐤋 | ʾl | God | Generic term for deity, cf. Hebrew ʾēl. |
| 𐤁𐤏𐤋 | bʿl | Lord, Master, Baal | Refers to the deity Baal or a title for “lord.” |
| 𐤏𐤁𐤃 | ʿbd | Servant, Slave | Often in names, e.g., ʿAbdmelqart (“servant of Melqart”). |
| 𐤒𐤓𐤕 | qrt | City | Cf. Punic Carthage (Qart-ḥadašt, “New City”). |
| 𐤔𐤌 | šm | Name | Common in inscriptions, cf. Hebrew šēm. |
| 𐤃𐤁𐤓 | dbr | Word, Thing | Cf. Hebrew dābār, used in legal or religious contexts. |
| 𐤌𐤇𐤍𐤕 | mḥnt | Camp, Army | Found in military contexts, cf. Hebrew maḥănê. |
| 𐤀𐤓𐤁 | ʾrb | Evening | Cf. Hebrew ʿereb. |
| 𐤉𐤌 | ym | Sea, Day | Context-dependent; cf. Hebrew yām (sea) or yôm (day). |
Verbs
| Phoenician Script | Transliteration | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 𐤁𐤍𐤄 | bnh | To build | Common in inscriptions about construction, cf. Hebrew bānâ. |
| 𐤏𐤔𐤕 | ʿšt | To make, do | Frequently in votive inscriptions, cf. Hebrew ʿāśâ. |
| 𐤍𐤕𐤍 | ntn | To give | Used in dedications, cf. Hebrew nātan. |
| 𐤋𐤏𐤍 | lʿn | To curse | Found in curses on tombs, cf. Hebrew ʾālâ. |
| 𐤁𐤓𐤊 | brk | To bless | Common in religious contexts, cf. Hebrew bārak. |
| 𐤒𐤃𐤔 | qdš | To consecrate, sanctify | Used for dedications to deities, cf. Hebrew qādaš. |
| 𐤔𐤌𐤏 | šmʿ | To hear | Cf. Hebrew šāmaʿ, often in divine appeals. |
| 𐤍𐤃𐤓 | ndr | To vow | Used in votive offerings, cf. Hebrew nādar. |
| 𐤄𐤋𐤊 | hlk | To go, walk | Cf. Hebrew hālak, used in narrative contexts. |
| 𐤌𐤕 | mt | To die | Common in epitaphs, cf. Hebrew mût. |
Adjectives
| Phoenician Script | Transliteration | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 𐤇𐤃𐤔 | ḥdš | New | As in Qart-ḥadašt (Carthage, “New City”), cf. Hebrew ḥādāš. |
| 𐤒𐤃𐤔 | qdš | Holy, sacred | Used for sacred objects or places, cf. Hebrew qādôš. |
| 𐤓𐤁 | rb | Great, chief | Often in titles, e.g., rb khnm (“chief priest”), cf. Hebrew rab. |
| 𐤈𐤁 | ṭb | Good | Cf. Hebrew ṭôb, used in moral or quality contexts. |
| 𐤆𐤊𐤓 | zkr | Male | Used in genealogies, cf. Hebrew zākār. |
| 𐤍𐤒𐤁 | nqb | Female | Rare, used in some inscriptions for lineage, cf. Hebrew nəqēbâ. |
Notes
The Phoenician script lacks vowels, so reconstructions (e.g., ʾab for 𐤀𐤁) rely on comparisons with Hebrew, Aramaic, or Ugaritic. Vocalizations are approximate.
Words are drawn from inscriptions like the Ahiram sarcophagus, Karatepe bilingual, and Punic texts from Carthage. Some terms are inferred from related languages due to limited direct evidence.
Many words are context-dependent (e.g., bt can mean “house” or “daughter”). Inscriptions often use formulaic phrases, especially in votive or funerary texts.
The surviving corpus of Phoenician texts is small, mostly consisting of short inscriptions (e.g., on stelae, tombs, or votive offerings). This limits the known vocabulary, especially for adjectives and less common verbs.
Many Phoenician names include theophoric elements, e.g., ʿAbdmelqart (𐤏𐤁𐤃𐤌𐤋𐤒𐤓𐤕, “Servant of Melqart”) or Baalḥanno (𐤁𐤏𐤋𐤇𐤍, “Baal is gracious”).
Phoenician influenced Greek (e.g., phoinix for purple dye or the Phoenicians themselves) and Hebrew, sharing much of its core vocabulary.
Punic, a later dialect of Phoenician, is better attested due to Carthaginian texts. Some words above (e.g., qart) are more common in Punic.
- 𐤀𐤓𐤑 ʾrṣ /ʾarṣ/ “land”
- 𐤁𐤍 bn /bin/ “son”
- 𐤌𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 mmlkt /mamlakt/ “kingdom”
Full example (from Ahiram sarcophagus inscription): 𐤀𐤓𐤍 ʾrn /ʾarōn/ “coffin”; Transliteration: ʾrn z pʿl tbnt… “This coffin made Tabnit…” Translation: “This coffin was made by Tabnit…”
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